Since it features both zero energy density and maximally negative spatial curvature, the Milne model is contradicted by cosmological observations.

Besides lacking the capability of describing matter Milne's universe is also incompatible with certain cosmological observations.

Another class of questions arises from cosmological observation.

The parameter values, and uncertainties, are estimated using large computer searches to locate the region of parameter space providing an acceptable match to cosmological observations.

STVG can also account for key cosmological observations, including:

Not just a staple of science fiction, other universes are a direct implication of cosmological observations.

After this dramatic discovery, the majority of cosmologists became convinced that the steady state theory could not explain the cosmological observations as well as the Big Bang.

When a model of the radio source is used, though, methods based on radio galaxies can give good agreement with other cosmological observations.

In addition, phenomena extrapolated from cosmological observations, such as dark matter and CP-violation, suggest a need for physics that goes beyond the Standard Model.

Today, cold dark matter is the simplest explanation for most cosmological observations.