(See Special state-to-state relations and One Country on Each Side.)

Mr. Lee stopped short of making a declaration of independence for Taiwan, but said from now on Taiwan would treat contacts with China as "state-to-state" relations.

"Special state-to-state relations, yes, as a U.S. state," Mr. Chou said.

Although Mr. Lee appears to have had multiple reasons for making his declaration about state-to-state relations, the American pressure was clearly an important factor.

However, all-out confrontation was not planned and Lê Duẩn still believed that state-to-state relations could improve.

"If such behavior of self-styled world cop is to be condoned, can there still be justice, sovereign equality and normal state-to-state relations in this world?"

Despite its shift toward cultivating state-to-state relations with established governments, many other countries had continued to be suspicious of China's intentions.

Compounding the problem is that both societies are controlled at the top, leaving outsiders little leverage to affect change except through formal state-to-state relations.

As Arab countries see themselves as modern individual states, not mere outposts of a single Arab people, normal state-to-state relations with Israel become a realistic possibility.